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New Theories / On the ‘particle-wave’ property of magnetic field rings.

« on: 23/03/2018 14:07:13 »

There are many unexplained aspects of physics theory, ranging from a ‘grand unification theory’ to the universal imbalance between ‘matter and anti-matter’.

But even everyday phenomenon, such as the flow of a current of electrons along a wire, takes its place on the list.
 
We are all aware that touching the positive terminal of a battery, a dynamo or a Van de Graaff generator, even grasping the metal door handle of a car, can initiate a flow of kinetic energy into our nervous system, which is far from pleasant.

But what exactly is the source of this kinetic energy and how are electrons physically conducted along a wire and into the pathways of our nervous system?

The physics model, originally developed to explain the transfer of kinetic energy down a wire, was based upon the concept of an ‘electric charge’ being associated with the electron.

The ‘electric field’ generated by the ‘electric charge’ conformed to two physical axioms. The magnitude of the charge upon the electron was always ‘constant’ and the electric field it created, transported kinetic energy in a ‘straight-line’ continuum to infinity.
 
But with the development of ‘quantum mechanics’, which revealed the discrete nature of both the atom and the photon, the ‘continuity’ concept upon which the electric charge and its field were based, became untenable, in that it contravened two of the basic requirements of quantum physics.

Nothing can generate ‘perpetual energy’ and nothing can propagate a continuum of energy to ‘infinity’.
 
The concept of an ‘electric field’, created by the accumulation of charged electrons upon the terminal of a generator, finally fell out of favour, when measurements of the ‘drift speed’ of an ‘electron flow’ along a wire under a high voltage electric field, proved to be far too slow to explain the near light speed that a current of kinetic energy is transported along a wire.

But if ‘electric charge’ is not the source of kinetic energy and electrons do not flow down the wire at the speed we observe, then what is creating the current flow of kinetic energy?

The essence of an alternative theory which can explain the conduction of a current along a wire, must have two properties. Its generator must be able to release ‘kinetic energy quanta’ into the wire and then propagate them along the conducting wire at or near the speed of light.

But there are only three primary sources of kinetic energy to choose from: electric, magnetic and gravity.

The ‘gravitational field’ is ruled out, because the size of the proton, neutron and electron particles in the atom, which are the generators of a gravitational force acting between and within atoms, are so small, that even cumulatively, they cannot generate enough mass between them, which would create a flow of kinetic energy along a wire conductor in the form of ‘gravitational waves’.

The electrostatic concepts of an ‘electric charge’ and an ‘electric field continuum’, ruled them out of contention on the grounds of their nonconformance with the theory of quantum mechanics. Hence the only source of kinetic energy remaining, for the purpose of defining an ‘alternate theory’ of current flow along a wire, is magnetism.
 
The incorporation of electrostatics theory into our models of the atom and the photon is so entrenched, that its role seems to be irreplaceable. Its underlying concept of an ‘electric charge’, devised by Benjamin Franklin in the 18th century, is deeply embedded in our psyche, even if we do not know exactly what it is!

But magnetism is a surprisingly realistic source to replace the ‘electric charge’, as all fundamental particles are magnetic in their nature and a magnetic field has unique qualities that differentiate it from an electric field continuum.

Firstly, magnetic fields conform to quantum theory. The magnetic field around a current carrying wire or a bar magnet, is created by the individual magnetic field rings of the participating electrons within their atom. As a consequence, the size of the magnetic field is restricted to the number of participating electrons, even if there are a great number of them.
 
Secondly, the existence of magnetic field lines can be traced physically, at least upon a macro scale, simply by using a compass. The lines are seen to be separate entities, each following a circular trajectory, which confirms their finiteness.

Magnetic field rings can be diverted from their path by the presence of other magnetic fields, as can be demonstrated with two bar magnets. But their field lines always return to their generating source, be it protons, neutrons, electrons, quarks or their anti-particles.

Magnetic field lines are not absorbed by particles of matter and hence they have the ability to permeate through the array of copper atoms in a wire, indeed through all molecular matter, as we observe with the earth’s magnetic field.

But there still remains a ‘key capability’ required of magnetism, which is to determine if an ‘individual magnetic ring’ has the ability to carry kinetic energy around its circular orbit and do so at the ‘speed of light’.

We know from experiments with iron filings and current flow in a wire, that the magnetic field rings created around the wire, each carry a ‘quantum of kinetic energy’, which enables the rings to physically move iron filings onto their pathway. The application of ‘magnetic induction’, acts to change the filings into tiny magnets, which draws them together onto their nearest pathway.

We also know, that whilst the current flow is in one direction around a wired circuit, the external magnetic field rings all rotate in the same clockwise direction. If the direction of flow of the current through the wired circuit is reversed, then the rotation of the magnetic field rings also reverses from clockwise to anti-clockwise.

This alternating rotation phenomenon of the magnetic field rings is explained by the ability of the electron’s magnetic field ring to change between its spin-up (clockwise) rotational state and its spin-down (anti-clockwise) rotational state, under the influence of the ‘alternating’ flow of kinetic energy through the wire.

From experiments with ‘current flow reversal’, we also know that if the current flow is alternated at a critical speed, then the ‘outer magnetic ring’ of the collapsing external magnetic field is propelled away as a ‘photon’, having been forcefully repelled by the growth of the new magnetic field rings, rotating in the opposite direction. The circular diameter or wavelength of the photon, lies in the ’radio-wave’ segment of the Spectrum of Light.

Increasing the speed of the alternating current reversal, gives rise to the emission of photons of smaller diameters, with a wavelength that lies within or nearer to the microwave region of the Spectrum of Light.

Maxwell’s model of the photon is structured upon the concept of an electric field alternating with a magnetic field, whilst moving at the speed of light. But shorn of its electric field component, the photon takes on the form of a magnetic field ring, with its particle of kinetic energy tracing out a sinusoidal wave, as it moves through space at the speed of light. The diameter of the outer magnetic field ring matches the diameter or wavelength of the released photon.

The magnetic ring from the field located around the wire and the magnetic ring of the despatched photon, are the same physical entity, except that the magnetic ring rotates within its field around a fixed point in space, whereas the photon has the velocity to move dynamically through space.
 
If the Spectrum of Light were to be laid out on a horizontal surface as a series of nested rings according to their wavelength, which ranges from gamma rays to radio waves, then you are looking at a structure that mirrors the magnetic field around a current carrying wire.

This gives rise to the premise that a magnetic field ring has a ‘particle-wave’ structure that is identical to the ‘particle-wave’ structure of the photon. Both sets of rings are created by the ‘same’ particle of kinetic energy rotating at the speed of light around their circular pathways.

As an outcome, magnetic field rings, like photons, conform to Planck’s formula: E=hf.
 
The generator whether a battery, a dynamo, a solar panel or a van de Graaff machine, expends kinetic energy quanta during its operation and as energy can neither be created nor destroyed, the kinetic energy quanta expended by the generator are transferred to the atoms located upon its terminal.

As there isn’t an electric charge to take into account, the kinetic energy quanta are magnetic field rings, which locate themselves around the outer electrons of the atoms, giving these electrons an extended magnetic field.

The extended magnetic field puts the outer electrons of the atoms into an ‘energised’ state upon the terminal of the generator and this is the source of energy, which replaces the concept of an ‘electric charge’.

The connection of a wired circuit between the generator’s terminals, creates an interface between the wire and the terminal. This enables the ‘energised’ electrons upon the generator’s terminal, to despatch their accumulated magnetic rings into the copper wire in the dynamic form of ‘magnetic waves’.

There is no physical movement of electrons between atoms in a conducting material. The transfer of kinetic energy is enacted by the movement of magnetic waves.

The ‘magnetic waves’ travel down the wire at the speed of light with the circulating motion of their kinetic energy particle tracing out a sinusoidal waveform, which demonstrates their particle-wave property.

The pain that you feel if you take hold of a live wire, happens because the wavelength of a magnetic ring around the energised electron, lies within the infra-red frequency range in the Spectrum of Light. The voltage or intensity of the magnetic waves emanating from a live wire, determines the level of pain that you feel, just like touching a hot stove.

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New Theories / On Photons and the Speed of Light.

« on: 07/12/2016 06:53:34 »

Transparency is the term given to specific materials such as: plastic, crystal and glass, which allow the ‘wavelengths of visible light’ to pass straight through them without being captured or scattered.
 
What is surprising about visible light, is that despite being able to pass straight through these media unscathed, it is slowed down throughout its passage, by apparently undergoing deceleration upon entry and acceleration upon exit. Diamond, for example, slows down the passage of visible photons by as much as 50%.

So, why does this happen? One possibility is that the wavelength and the frequency of the photon are ‘decoupled’ from each other, allowing the wavelength to shorten on entry and lengthen back again upon exit, whilst keeping the frequency unchanged. Whether this occurs or not, is difficult to prove, but it does destroy the symmetry of the wave concept of light.

The aim of this article is to develop a more pragmatic explanation using a process called ‘nuclear deflection’. But it does require changes to the perception of both the photon and the atomic nucleus.

All photons are known to travel in straight lines through transparent media, but they can find their route is blocked, not by electrons, but by the atomic nuclei that lie in their path. For the medium to be transparent, the photon must find a way to circumvent them and remain on line.

The essence of ‘nuclear deflection’ is that the circumvention of a nucleus creates a time delay, by forcing the photon to travel around it. The cumulative effect of these delays, results in a ‘transit time’ that is slower than the transit time expected from a geometrically straight-line distance.

The appeal of this concept, is that the photons never actually ‘slow down’ from their speed at the velocity of light, ‘c’, whatever media they pass through.

But the question still to be explained is how do photons circumvent the nuclei? The avoidance of an atomic nucleus, requires the action of a deflecting force and Maxwell’s model of the photon gives us the two main options for the forces involved: the ‘electric force’ and the ‘magnetic force’.

Electric attraction and repulsion relies upon the presence of ‘like’ and ‘unlike’ charges. But whilst the nucleus has multiple positive charges associated with its protons, the photon does not carry an electric charge, positive or negative, which implies that electric repulsion is not an explanation. This leads on to the consideration of the magnetic properties of the photon and the atomic nucleus.

The nucleus of an atom, such as silicon, which is the main ingredient of glass, has a magnetic field that is generated by the individual magnetic fields of its fourteen protons and fourteen neutrons. The nucleus therefore, has to be perceived as having a collective ‘nuclear magnetic dipole moment’, which creates a coherent spherical magnetic field around itself.

This shift in the perception of the atomic nucleus from being collectively ‘electrostatic’ to also being collectively ‘magnetic’, is a requirement for the explanation of ‘nuclear deflection’.

The second requirement is the visualisation of the photon’s magnetic property and experiments using alternating currents in a wire, gives us a clue to the photon’s magnetic structure.

The passing of an electric current through a wire, creates a field of ‘concentric’ magnetic rings being established in a perpendicular plane around the wire, with all the lines rotating in the same direction. As the alternating current voltage falls to zero, the ‘concentric rings’ return to the wire in a ‘sequential manner’, smallest ring first, largest ring last, obeying the rule that magnetic lines of force cannot cross each other.

Once the alternating current goes into reverse, a new field of ‘concentric’ magnetic rings is established in their place, but with the field lines rotating in the opposite direction around the wire. But if the frequency of the alternating current is increased, a critical frequency is reached, at which ‘radio-waves’ of that frequency, are created and radiated away from the wire.

This increase of the alternating frequency up to this critical level, creates a situation whereby the sequential process of returning the magnetic field rings back into the wire, is overtaken by the growth of the new magnetic field. The first new field ring, rotating in the opposite direction around the wire, establishes itself before the outermost ring of the old field has returned to the wire.

As two magnetic field rings cannot occupy the same place in space, the growth of the new field up to its maximum size, expels the old ring from its location around the wire, departing with the structure of a ‘rotating ring’. The re-connectivity property of magnetic field rings, enables the magnetic ring to pass through the generating wire and reform itself on the other side.

If Maxwell’s model of the photon is correct, then the electric field of the charged electrons in the wire must become involved with this dispatched magnetic ring. The difficulty here, is that an electron with a charge can create a magnetic field ring, but a magnetic field ring cannot create an ‘electric charge’. They can energise and accelerate an electron, but not create its charge and without a charge, there can be no radiated presence of an electric field.

Maxwell’s concept of alternating electric and magnetic field lines could more easily be explained if the photon carried an electric charge, but photons have never been observed to have an electric charge.
     
Without an electric component, we are faced with the concept of the photon as being a single magnetic ring, with its kinetic energy contained within the ring, travelling forward in a ‘rotational manner’ at the speed of light. This gives the photon its quantum structure, its kinetic energy, its ability to rotate without energy loss and its movement at the constant speed of light through all media including a vacuum. Place an imaginary mark upon the photon’s magnetic ring and its forward motion traces out the sinusoidal wave that is typical of the photon.

With these two magnetic perceptions of the atomic nucleus and the photon in place, we are now able to visualise the process of ‘nuclear deflection’ by the photon on its passage through a transparent medium.

For the photon, there is no sense of up and down or right and left, so its ring can be orientated at any angle and still rotate down the straight-line route that it is on.

When it encounters the spherical magnetic field of a nucleus, it can arrive from any angle and be incident at any location upon the spherical surface of the magnetic field of the nucleus. The property of magnetism that causes the magnetic photon to be deflected, is that ‘magnetic lines cannot cross each other’.
 
But ‘magnetic deflection’ is not the same as ‘magnetic repulsion’. The magnetic barrier of the nucleus deflects the photon over the outer surface of its magnetic field, keeping intact both its velocity and its direction of travel. Once the magnetic field of the nucleus has been circumvented, the photon is free to continue along its straight-line path through the transparent medium, until another nucleus bars its way and the deflection process repeats itself.

In the case of diamond, the extra distance travelled by the photon in circumventing the magnetic field of a carbon nucleus, must be equal to the distance between the magnetic fields of two adjacent nuclei in the diamond’s crystal lattice, thereby slowing down the photon’s apparent velocity by 50%.

This concept of ‘nuclear deflection’, as an explanation of why light appears to slow down during its passage through a transparent medium, only makes sense just so long as the assumptions made about the photon and the atomic nucleus are reasonably correct. But perhaps it is these changes to the perceptions of the atomic nucleus and the photon that are more important to physics. But that judgement depends upon what you think.

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New Theories / On Light and the Photoelectric effect.

« on: 06/11/2016 13:22:58 »

To develop a different perception of how the photoelectric effect operates, requires a change from the accepted terminology, where the terms: ‘absorb, jump and emit’ are replaced by ‘capture, store and release’.

Rather than the electron ‘jumping’ into an unfilled ‘orbital energy band’ somewhere within a shell located further away from the nucleus, the photon ‘capture and store’ process retains the electron in place within its own orbital energy band. Traditionally these orbital energy bands (OEB’s) within their numbered shells have been labelled: 1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,3d,4s etc.

As a consequence, the photon that is captured and stored by an electron, is the same photon that is subsequently released by that electron and this explains, without any doubt, why the ‘absorption and emission spectra’ are compositely the same for a particular atom, although unique for every elemental atom in the Table of Elements.

Two other changes in terminology are also necessary and these define an electron and its captured photon as being ‘energised’, rather than ‘excited’ and a photon as being ‘released’ rather than ‘emitted’ by the electron.

The final, although it is the most significant change, is conceptual, in that the mechanism behind the photoelectric effect, is based upon the premise that the kinetic energy carried by a ‘single photon’ of light is always the same ‘quantum amount’, regardless of the photon’s wavelength. And the magnitude of this quantum amount is Plank’s constant.

The ‘capture and store’ process by which a photon is retained by an electron, is achieved by the incident photon wrapping itself around the electron. But the quantised energy structure of the atom into shells with orbital energy bands (OEB’s), means that only a photon with a specific wavelength can be captured by an electron located in a particular OEB of the atom.

This quantised energy structure of the atom, enables the photon to circle the electron without impinging upon the other electrons located within its own and the adjacent orbital energy bands. Photons that don’t match any of the quantised energy levels between adjacent OEB’s, pass straight through the atom unaffected and this is the reason why certain materials, such as crystal and glass, are transparent.

This quantum gain in kinetic energy arising from the capture of a photon, is enough to split an electron pair apart and to cause the selected electron of the pair to be ‘nudged’ out of its orbital energy band and this happens to all electrons and electron pairs located in every orbital energy band of the atom.

The logic behind this statement is that an electron in any OEB must have enough angular momentum to exactly counteract the attracting force of its nucleus. If it hadn’t, it would spiral in towards the nucleus and if it had too much angular momentum, it would leave the atom all together. So just a small additional amount of kinetic energy of the order of Plank’s constant, will cause an electron to leave its OEB and the atom, regardless of its particular location within the atom’s orbital energy bands.

All electrons depart the atom in an ‘energised state’, but they do so with a velocity that is dependent upon the electron’s ‘quantised angular momentum’. The inner electrons located nearer to the nucleus, are released with ‘increased velocities’ compared to those electrons located in the outer orbital energy bands.

If, on its journey towards the surface of the photoelectric material, the energised electron encounters another atom, which is missing an electron in an identical orbital energy band to that from which the electron departed, then the energised electron will release the captured photon and locate itself within this orbital energy band of the receiving atom.
 
But if it reaches the surface of the photoelectric material and becomes free of its atomic environment, then the ‘energised’ electron with its ‘stored photon’ located around it, will move away from the surface with the velocity that it gained from its inherent angular momentum within the atom.

In this state, the energised electron will exhibit the characteristic property of being both a ‘particle and a wave’. And this is just what you would expect, because that is what an ‘energised electron’ actually is.

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New Theories / Re: On Kinetic Energy and Light.

« on: 24/10/2016 07:41:30 »

“Light is the purest form of kinetic energy”.

To develop an alternative explanation to the concept of ‘electron jumping’, we can progress by taking a different interpretation of Plank’s formula of E=hf, where E is the kinetic energy generated by light photons of a specific frequency passing through a unit area per second, f is the photon frequency in cycles per second and h is Plank’s constant.

The formula as above, is correctly applied in its role of measuring the flow of kinetic energy through a unit area, but it is a mistake to make the assumption that the photon frequency, f and the kinetic energy, E are linearly correlated. By interpreting the formula without its ‘time dimension’ and setting the frequency of a photon at ‘one quantum cycle’, then E becomes the kinetic energy carried by one ‘wave cycle’ of a photon and h is the measurement of the photon’s energy content.

The conclusion of this adaption of the formula is that every photon of light, whatever its frequency, carries exactly the same amount of kinetic energy and its magnitude is Plank’s constant.

Based on the photoelectric effect Planck and Einstein concluded that the energy must be packetized and the packets depend on the frequency because under some frequency threshold there is no photoelectric effect, no matter how intense is the radiation, so there must be a relation between the frequency and the photons energy.

Your reply is the standard textbook explanation of the experimental results gained with the photoelectric effect, but my goal is to give alternative theories, which still explain the experimental results, but change the logic and create new avenues of thought.

The aim of this particular article was to present the concept of photon ‘capture and release’, as an alternative to the standard ‘absorb, jump and emit’ theory of ‘excited’ electron behaviour.
 
Casually introducing a paragraph in this article on the photoelectric effect, did not do the subject justice.
 
May I ask for your patience as I get around to offering another explanation, as to how the photoelectric effect can be also be explained in a different way.