[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

https://scitechdaily.com/whos-to-die-and-whos-to-live-mechanical-cue-is-at-the-origin-of-cell-death-decision/

In past studies, researchers have found that C. elegans gonads generate more germ cells than needed and that only half of them grow to become oocytes, while the rest shrinks and die by physiological apoptosis, a programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. Now, scientists from the Biotechnology Center of the TU Dresden (BIOTEC), the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics (MPI-CBG), the Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life (PoL) at the TU Dresden, the Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems (MPI-PKS), the Flatiron Institute, NY, and the University of California, Berkeley, found evidence to answer the question of what triggers this cell fate decision between life and death in the germline.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

At this point it should be clear that any new information  must be related to preexisting common knowledge for it to be meaningful.

Here is another example. Someone gives us a message, 11001010.
There are many ways to interpret this. It could be a decimal number, or other base number such as hexadecimal or binary. Even in binary, we can treat it as signed or unsigned. Some of the bits can be a start bit, stop bit, or parity bit.
It could be treated as binary coded decimal.
It could also be a Morse code.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

Due to traffic jam, it recommended to take an alternative route.

A common way to reduce traffic jam is by applying odd-even rule. On odd dates, only vehicles with odd plate number are allowed to pass, and vice versa. Assuming that the plate numbers are generally  assigned consecutively, the least significant bit suddenly becomes the most important bit.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

In information theory, one bit of information reduces the uncertainty by a half. To eliminate uncertainty entirely, we need infinite bits of information.

The number of bit specifies the quantity of information. Its conformity with objective reality as the ground truth specifies the quality of the information. Those concepts are similar to precision and accuracy, respectively.
Previously, I've created a thread specifically discussing about accuracy and precision from a practical perspective. I tried to quantify the data quality and quantity to be used in a database system that virtualize plant operations to make them more manageable. I wanted to use the most general forms as possible so they can be used flexibly for wide range of applications. Perhaps my approach was considered unconventional that it should be put in new theory section.
In measurement problems, our results are compared to a unit of measurement, and expressed in a number. The value may be accompanied by tolerance or quantization of uncertainty, due to the measurement methods or some unpredictable external factors. We may be so familiar with the concept of numbers, especially the decimal based, since early ages that we often take it for granted.

[Zer0]

Hello Yusuf!
🙏

I am quite interested & enthusiastic about this particular Subject.
👍
But surely Not as much as You are.

Just wanted to say, this OP is quite a Good Read for anyone who's interested on the Topic.
👌


P.S. - Rather than googling for similar articles, I'd just visit in here n read it back to back.
👍
You ' Quote ' information, also provide Official Links for further details & post Images too.
😇
Very Nice & Good Work!
✌️

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

Hi Zer0. Thank you for your kind words. I really appreciate it. It gives me a positive feedback that I am going to the right direction.
I also appreciate some negative feedbacks to let me know if I made mistakes or misunderstand some concepts. They could help me avoid further mistakes.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

Autonomous flying vehicles in 'smart cities' - NASA working on infrastructure

Data and Reasoning Fabric (DRF) could one day "assemble and provide useful information to autonomous vehicles in real time. The information system is being developed by NASA.

Credit: NASA

Here is the latest development of shared virtual universe among autonomous vehicles. It's a step closer toward a unified virtual universe that is the idea behind this thread, although it's usage is still limited to autonomous vehicles only. The next step would be integration between this system with other virtualization systems already established, such as governments and corporations.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

https://venturebeat.com/2021/06/09/deepmind-says-reinforcement-learning-is-enough-to-reach-general-ai/

In their decades-long chase to create artificial intelligence, computer scientists have designed and developed all kinds of complicated mechanisms and technologies to replicate vision, language, reasoning, motor skills, and other abilities associated with intelligent life. While these efforts have resulted in AI systems that can efficiently solve specific problems in limited environments, they fall short of developing the kind of general intelligence seen in humans and animals.

In a new paper submitted to the peer-reviewed Artificial Intelligence journal, scientists at U.K.-based AI lab DeepMind argue that intelligence and its associated abilities will emerge not from formulating and solving complicated problems but by sticking to a simple but powerful principle: reward maximization.

Titled “Reward is Enough,” the paper, which is still in pre-proof as of this writing, draws inspiration from studying the evolution of natural intelligence as well as drawing lessons from recent achievements in artificial intelligence. The authors suggest that reward maximization and trial-and-error experience are enough to develop behavior that exhibits the kind of abilities associated with intelligence. And from this, they conclude that reinforcement learning, a branch of AI that is based on reward maximization, can lead to the development of artificial general intelligence.

...

In the race of developing AI, besides of hardware capacity, the results depend on the choosing of reward function. It's like choosing the instrumental goals which are aligned with the terminal goals. The natural long term reward is survival. Nature also provides short term reward function through pleasure and pain.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

"Why Is Quantum Computing So Hard to Explain | Quanta Magazine" https://www.quantamagazine.org/why-is-quantum-computing-so-hard-to-explain-20210608/

Quantum computers, you might have heard, are magical uber-machines that will soon cure cancer and global warming by trying all possible answers in different parallel universes. For 15 years, on my blog and elsewhere, I’ve railed against this cartoonish vision, trying to explain what I see as the subtler but ironically even more fascinating truth. I approach this as a public service and almost my moral duty as a quantum computing researcher. Alas, the work feels Sisyphean: The cringeworthy hype about quantum computers has only increased over the years, as corporations and governments have invested billions, and as the technology has progressed to programmable 50-qubit devices that (on certain contrived benchmarks) really can give the world’s biggest supercomputers a run for their money. And just as in cryptocurrency, machine learning and other trendy fields, with money have come hucksters.

In reflective moments, though, I get it. The reality is that even if you removed all the bad incentives and the greed, quantum computing would still be hard to explain briefly and honestly without math. As the quantum computing pioneer Richard Feynman once said about the quantum electrodynamics work that won him the Nobel Prize, if it were possible to describe it in a few sentences, it wouldn’t have been worth a Nobel Prize.

Not that that’s stopped people from trying. Ever since Peter Shor discovered in 1994 that a quantum computer could break most of the encryption that protects transactions on the internet, excitement about the technology has been driven by more than just intellectual curiosity. Indeed, developments in the field typically get covered as business or technology stories rather than as science ones.

Once someone understands these concepts, I’d say they’re ready to start reading — or possibly even writing — an article on the latest claimed advance in quantum computing. They’ll know which questions to ask in the constant struggle to distinguish reality from hype. Understanding this stuff really is possible — after all, it isn’t rocket science; it’s just quantum computing!

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

There's Plenty Moore Room: IBM's New 2nm CPU

People talk about the death of semiconductors being able to shrink. IBM is laughing in your face - there's plenty of room, and plenty of density, and they've developed a proof of concept to showcase where the technology can go. Here's a look at IBM's new 2nm silicon.

Intro

0:00 The Future in 2024
0:26 What Nanometers Really Mean
3:05 Transistor Density
4:02 IBM on 2nm
5:38 Comparing against current nodes
7:00 What's on the chip
7:40 Gate-All-Around Nanosheets
8:45 Albany, NY
9:16 Performance of 2nm
9:42 Coming to Market and Pathfinding
11:06 EUV and Future of EUV (Jim Keller)
14:12 Minimum Specification: Bite a Wafer
14:39 Cat Tax

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

We may be so familiar with the concept of numbers, especially the decimal based, since early ages that we often take it for granted.

The smallest base number for numerical writings is 2. That's why most computer are binary system. For human machine interface such as programming languages, some extension of binary code are often useful, such as octal, hexadecimal, or BCD.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

If you use such social media websites as Facebook and Twitter, you may have come across posts flagged with warnings about misinformation. So far, most misinformation – flagged and unflagged – has been aimed at the general public. Imagine the possibility of misinformation – information that is false or misleading – in scientific and technical fields like cybersecurity, public safety and medicine.

"Cybersecurity experts face a new challenge: AI capable of tricking them" https://www.inputmag.com/culture/cybersecurity-experts-face-a-new-challenge-ai-capable-of-tricking-them/amp

General misinformation often aims to tarnish the reputation of companies or public figures. Misinformation within communities of expertise has the potential for scary outcomes such as delivering incorrect medical advice to doctors and patients. This could put lives at risk.

To test this threat, we studied the impacts of spreading misinformation in the cybersecurity and medical communities. We used artificial intelligence models dubbed transformers to generate false cybersecurity news and COVID-19 medical studies and presented the cybersecurity misinformation to cybersecurity experts for testing. We found that transformer-generated misinformation was able to fool cybersecurity experts.

This result emphasizes the urgency of reliable sources of information that accurately and precisely represent objective reality as the ground truth.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

This result emphasizes the urgency of reliable sources of information that accurately and precisely represent objective reality as the ground truth.

This brings us back to the question about accuracy and precision of our information sources. Here are definitions of precision by the dictionary.

the quality, condition, or fact of being exact and accurate.
"the deal was planned and executed with military precision"

TECHNICAL
refinement in a measurement, calculation, or specification, especially as represented by the number of digits given.
"a precision of six decimal figures"

And here are the definitions of accuracy.

the quality or state of being correct or precise.
"we have confidence in the accuracy of the statistics"

TECHNICAL
the degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or specification conforms to the correct value or a standard.
"the accuracy of radiocarbon dating"

We can see here that in general definition, the meanings of precision and accuracy are mixed. While in technical definition, it's restricted to numeric writing, especially in decimal based number. We can quickly realize that those definitions can't cover all kinds of usage of the word.

In technical usage, non-number information can't be described. For example, Alice is going to Japan. It would be more precise if it's said that she's going to Tokyo. Even more precise if the district or even the complete address were given. But if it turns out that she's going to Kyoto instead of Tokyo, then the previous information about the destination city is not accurate, although still more precise than just the destination country.

Expression of the same numeric value but in different base number would give us different precision.

In general usage, it should be possible to express information with high precision independently from accuracy. There are accurate but imprecise information. On the other hand, there are also precise but inaccurate information.

This video tries to distinct them.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

Voluntarist Epistemology

This video also contains an example of balancing between accuracy and precision, especially from 26:40 to 31:26

According to Bas van Fraassen's voluntarist epistemology, the only constraint on rational belief is consistency. Beyond this, our beliefs must be guided not by rules of reason, but by the passions: emotions, values, and intuitions. This video examines the grounds for voluntarism in the failure of traditional epistemology, and in the need for an epistemology that can properly accommodate conceptual revolutions. Then I turn to the objections to voluntarism.

Outline of voluntarism:
0:00 - Introduction
4:02 - Why consistency?
8:13 - Failure of traditional epistemology
18:37 - Voluntarism against skepticism
31:26 - Conceptual revolution and objectifying epistemology
Objections to voluntarism:
48:38 - Arbitrariness
53:00 - Too permissive?
1:01:34 - Too conservative?

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

Expression of the same numeric value but in different base number would give us different precision.

Since binary is the smallest base number, it would be preferred to express precision.  So, the precision of an information depends on how many bits its content is.
In some programming languages, we can define a floating point variable using a single or double precision data type. So my assertion that precision of an information represents its data quantity is not an entirely new concept, although many forum members here didn't seem to agree.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format




https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

The Longest DNA in the Animal Kingdom Found - Not What I Expected

DNA is the largest information storage method provided by nature. Studying how it works is highly important.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

Expression of the same numeric value but in different base number would give us different precision.

Since binary is the smallest base number, it would be preferred to express precision.  So, the precision of an information depends on how many bits its content is.
In some programming languages, we can define a floating point variable using a single or double precision data type. So my assertion that precision of an information represents its data quantity is not an entirely new concept, although many forum members here didn't seem to agree.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format




https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format

It's clear that bits in different positions in the floating point representation have different significance in determining the numeric value of the data. The significance of the bit can be defined as the difference of the data value caused by its flipping between 0 and 1. In general, they are sorted from highest to lowest significance (from left to right position in writing); except for sign bit, whose significance depends on the value determined by other bits. If it's small, then the sign bit has low significance. On the other hand, if the value from other bits is big, the sign bit has high significance.
 

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

In real life experience, we often get/use numerical information with even lower precision than what's expressed by single precision floating point. In many applications, it's enough to write π as 3.14.
In floating point representation, 3 digit of decimal number can be written using 10 bits of fraction part. The rest of the bits are rounded to 0, whose actual value we don't care.
By defining precision as quantity of information, we can use it in numeric as well non-numeric data.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

As I mentioned earlier,  actual/practical precision of an information also depends on the assumptions assigned to it. For example, if I say that your car key is in Waldo's pocket, you would be able to quickly find it, as long as you can find Waldo first. In this case, my explicit statement only contains a few bits of information. But it can become highly precise when it's combined with correct assumptions not expressed in my statement. Like which Waldo I'm talking about.
Another example, if I say that the value of x equals 2π, modern people would recognize it with very high precision. It's because the symbols carry almost unambiguous meaning in modern world. It would be different in ancient times.

[hamdani yusuf (OP)]

The next problem is the accuracy of the information. Let's start with a non-numeric case, such as finding Waldo in a picture.


Saying that Waldo is in the picture is accurate, but not precise.
Saying that Waldo is at the bottom right corner of the picture is more precise, but not accurate.
Saying that Waldo is around the center of the picture, not far away from the red tent is more accurate and precise.

The first and third statements are accurate because they include the true value of Waldo's position.
The second statement becomes inaccurate because it excludes the true value of Waldo's position.